Shafii Sunnism was the dominant form of Islam in most of Iran until rise of the Safavid Empire although a significant undercurrent of Ismailism and a very large minority of Twelvers were present all over Persia, going back to some of the most illustrious Persian intellectuals in history who were Shias, such as Ferdowsi.

Many scholars and scientists who lived before the Safavid era, such as Avicenna, Jābir ibn Hayyān, Alhazen, Al-Farabi and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and the poet Hafez were Shia Muslims of both the Ismaili and Twelver traditions (some indistinguishably so, such as al-Tusi), as was most of Iran’s elite. There were many Sunni scientists and scholars as well, such as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, philosopher-theologian Ghazali, and poet Saadii

Nizamiyyas were the medieval institutions of Islamic higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century. Nizamiyyah institutes were the first well-organized universities in the Muslim world.

The most famous and celebrated of all the nizamiyyah schools was Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad (established 1065), where Nizam al-Mulk appointed the distinguished philosopher and theologian, Ghazali, as a professor. Other Nizamiyyah schools were located in Nishapur, Balkh, Herat and Isfahan.

The Sunni hegemony did not undercut the Shia presence in Iran. The writers of the Shia Four Books were Iranian, as were many other great scholars. According to Morteza Motahhari.

The majority of Iranians turned to Shi’ism from the Safawid period onwards. Of course, it cannot be denied that Iran’s environment was more favourable to the flourishing of the Shi’ism as compared to all other parts of the Muslim world.

Shi’ism did not penetrate any land to the extent that it gradually could in Iran. With the passage of time, Iranians’ readiness to practise Shi’ism grew day by day. Had Shi`ism not been deeply rooted in the Iranian spirit, the Safawids (907-1145/ 1501-1732) would not have succeeded in converting Iranians to the Shi’a creed and making them follow the Prophet’s Ahl al-Bayt sheerly by capturing political power.

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The domination of the Sunni creed during the first nine Islamic centuries characterizes the religious history of Iran during this period.

There were however some exceptions to this general domination which emerged in the form of the Zaydīs of Tabaristan, the Buwayhid, the rule of the Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah (r. 1304-1316 CE) and the Sarbedaran.

Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, Twelver and Zaidi Shiism had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, the Shia in Iran were nourished from Kufah, Baghdad and later from Najaf and Al Hillah. Shī‘ī were dominant in Tabaristan, Qom, Kashan, Avaj and Sabzevar. In many other areas the population of Shias and Sunni was mixed.

The first Zaidi state was established in Daylaman and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 C.E. by the Alavids; it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later the state was revived in Gilan (north-western Iran) and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. After which from the 12th-13th centuries, the Zaidis of Daylaman, Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledge the Zaidi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaidi Imams within Iran.

The Buyids, who were Zaidi and had a significant influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself, provided a unique opportunity for the spread and diffusion of Shia thought. This spread of Shiism to the inner circles of the government enabled the Shia to withstand those who opposed them by relying upon the power of the caliphate.

Twelvers came to Iran from Arab regions in the course of four stages. First, through the Asharis tribe at the end of the 7th and during the 8th century. Second through the pupils of Sabzevar, and especially those of Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, who were from Rey and Sabzawar and resided in those cities. Third, through the school of Hillah under the leadership of Al-Hilli and his son Fakhr al-Muhaqqiqin. Fourth, through the scholars of Jabal Amel residing in that region, or in Iraq, during the 16th and 17th centuries who later migrated to Iran.

On the other hand, the Ismaili da‘wah (“missionary institution”) sent missionaries (du‘āt, sg. dā‘ī) during the Fatimid Caliphate to Persia. When the Ismailis diided into two sects, Nizaris established their base in northern Persia. Hassan-i Sabbah conquered fortresses and captured Alamut in 1090 CE. Nizaris used this fortress until the Mongols finally seized and destroyed it in 1256 CE.

After the Mongols and the fall of the Abbasids, the Sunni Ulama suffered greatly. In addition to the destruction of the ucaliphate there was no official Sunni school of Law. Many libraries and madrasahs were destroyed and Sunni scholars migrated to other Islamic areas such as Anatolia and Egypt. In contrast, most Shia were largely unaffected as their center was not in Iran at this time. For the first time, the Shia could openly convert other Muslims to their movement.

Several local Shia dynasties like the Marashi and Sarbadars were established during this time. The kings of the Ak Koyunlu and Kara Koyunlu dynasties ruled in Tabriz with a domain extending to Fars and Kerman. In Egypt the Fatimid government ruled.

Muhammad Khudabandah, the famous builder of Soltaniyeh, was among the first of the Mongols to convert to Shī‘ism, and his descendants ruled for many years in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shī‘ī thought.

Sufism played a major role in spread of Shiism in this time.

After the Mongol invasion Shiims and Sufism once again formed a close association in many ways. Some of the Ismailis whose power had broken by the Mongols, went underground and appeared later within Sufi orders or as new branches of already existing orders. In Twelve-Imam Shiism also from thirteenths(CE) to the sixteenth(CE) century Sufism began to grow within official Shiite circles.

The extremist sects of the Hurufis and Shasha’a grew directly out of a background that is both Shiite and Sufi. More important in the long run than these sects were the Sufi orders which spread in Persia at this time and aided in the preparing the ground for the Shiite movement of Safavids. Two of these orders are of particular significance in this question of the relation of Shiism and Sufism: The Nimatullahi order and Nurbakhshi order. Hossein Nasr

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Sunni and Shia Islam are the two major denominations of Islam. The demographic breakdown between the two groups is difficult to assess and varies by source, but a good approximation is that 80-90% of the world’s Muslims are Sunni and 10-20% are Shia, with most Shias belonging to the Twelver tradition and the rest divided between several other groups.

Shias make up the majority of the population in Iran ( around 95 % of all muslims ), Azerbaijan ( around 85 % of all muslims ), Iraq ( 60 – 70 % of all muslims ) and Bahrain ( around 70 % of all muslims ). Around 46 – 48 % of Yemenite muslims are Shias. Around 30 – 40 % of Kuwaiti muslims are Shias. Around 20- 30 % of Turkish muslims are Alevi Shias. Around 21 – 28 % of Lebanese population are Shias. Around 15 – 20 % of Saudi Arabian muslims are Shias. Around 10 – 20 % of Pakistani muslims are Shias. Around 10 – 19 % muslims of Afghanistan are Shias. Around 13 % of Syrian population are Shias. Around 7 % of Senegalese population are Shias. Around 5 % of Uzbekistani muslims are Shias. Around 5 % of muslims of Niger are Shias. Around 3 % of population of Tajikistan are Shias.

Shias are about 10-to-15 percent of the entire Muslim world. We don’t have accurate statistics because in much of the Middle East it is not convenient to have them, for ruling regimes in particular. But the estimates are that they are about 10-to-15 percent of the Muslim world, which puts them somewhere between 165-to-190 million people.

The overwhelming majority of that population lives between Pakistan and Lebanon. Iran always had been a Shia country, the largest one, with about 60 million population.And, potentially, there are as many Shias in India as there are in Iraq. Vali Nasr, October 18, 2006

Sunnis are a majority in other Muslim communities in Southeast Asia, China, South Asia, Africa and the rest of the Arab World.

Over the years Sunni-Shia relations have been marked by both cooperation and conflict, often with deadly violence. A period of relative harmony during most of the 20th century has been replaced by conflict, particularly following the start of the Iraq War.Today there are differences in religious practice, traditions and customs as well as religious beliefs.

The historic background of the Sunni–Shia split lies in the schism that occurred when the Islamic prophet Muhammad died in the year 632, leading to a dispute over succession to Muhammad as a caliph of the Islamic community spread across various parts of the world which led to the Battle of Siffin. Sectarian violence persists to this day from Pakistan to Yemen and is the most common element of friction throughout the Middle East.

Sunnis think that Abu Bakr was Muhammad’s rightful successor and that the method of choosing or electing leaders (Shura) endorsed by the Qur’an is the consensus of the Ummah, (the Muslim community). Shiites state that Muhammad divinely ordained his cousin and son-in-law Ali (the father of his grandsons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali) in accordance with the command of God to be the next Caliph making Ali and his direct descendants Muhammad’s successors.

Sunnis follow the Rashidun “rightly guided Caliphs”, who were the first four caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali. Shia theology discounts the legitimacy of the first three caliphs and believe that Ali is the second-most divinely inspired man (after Muhammad) and that he and his descendants by Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah, the Imams, are the sole legitimate Islamic leaders.

The Imamate of the Shia encompasses far more of a prophetic function than the Caliphate of the Sunnis. Unlike Sunni, Shias believe special spiritual qualities have been granted not only to Muhammad but also to Ali and the other Imams. Twelvers believe the imams are immaculate from sin and human error (ma’sūm), and can understand and interpret the hidden inner meaning of the teachings of Islam. In this way the Imams are trustees (wasi) who bear the light of Muhammad (Nūr Muhammadin).

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Mahdi

While Shias and Sunnis differ on the nature of the Mahdi, many members of both groups, especially Sufis, believe that the Mahdi will appear at end times to bring about a perfect and just Islamic society. Twelvers believe the Mahdi will be Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth Imam returned from the Occultation, where he has been hidden by God since 874 CE.

In contrast, mainstream Sunnis believe the Mahdi will be named Muhammad, be a descendant of the Prophet and will revive the faith, but will not necessarily be connected with the end of the world.

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Hadith

The Shias accept some of the same hadiths used by Sunnis as part of the sunnah to argue their case. In addition, they consider the sayings of Ahl al-Bayt that are not attributed directly to Muhammad as hadiths. Shias do not accept many Sunni hadiths unless they are also recorded in Shia sources or the methodology can be proven of how they were recorded. Also, some Sunni-accepted hadith are less favored by Shias; one example is that because of Aisha’s opposition to Ali, hadith narrated by Aishah are not given the same authority as those by other companions. Another example is hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah, who was is considered by Shias as enemy of Ali. The Shia argument is that Abu Hurairah was only a Muslim three years of his life before his death and he managed to record ten times as many hadiths as Abu Bakr and Ali each. Shias also believe that every single hadith must end with a verse from the Qur’an that relates to its subject.

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Emphasis

Mainstream Sunnism has been said to be “about” Sharia, sacred law. In contrast, the Shia also follow Islamic law with great “vigilance”, but their belief is added with Ijtihad “Research” in the light of teachings of the Qur’an.

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Shiism and Sufism

Shiism and Sunni Sufism are said to share a number of hallmarks: Belief in an inner meaning to the Qur’an, special status for some mortals (saints for Sufi, Imams for Shias), as well as veneration of Ali and Muhammad’s family.

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Practices

Many distinctions can be made between Sunnis and Shiaīs through observation alone:

Salah

When prostrating during ritual prayer (Salah), Shias place their forehead onto a piece of naturally occurring material, often a clay tablet (mohr), soil (turbah) or at times sand from Karbala, the place where Husayn ibn Ali was martyred, instead of directly onto a prayer rug. There is precedence for this in Sunni thought, as it is recommended not to prostrate on a non-natural surface.

Some Shia perform prayers back to back, sometimes worshipping two times consecutively (1+2+2 i.e. fajr on its own Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha’a), thus praying five times a day but with a very small break in between the prayer, a tradition Muhammad followed according the Sunni scholar Muhammad al-Bukhari and which is also followed by Muslims all over the world while performing Hajj, instead of five prayers with at least one hour gap between them as required by Sunni schools of law.

Shias and the followers of the Sunni Maliki school hold their hands at their sides during prayer; Sunnis of other schools cross their arms (right over left) and clasp their hands, although it is commonly held by Sunni scholars that either is acceptable.

Mutah

The Shia permit mut’ah or Nikah mut‘ah—fixed-term temporary marriage—which is not acceptable within the Sunni community and is believed a planned and agreed rape. Mutah is not the same as Misyar marriage or ‘Arfi marriage, which has no date of expiration and is permitted by some Sunnis. A Misyar marriage differs from a conventional Islamic marriage in that the man does not have financial responsibility over the woman by her own free will.

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Hijab and dress

Devout women of the Shia traditionally wear black as do male religious leaders. Mainstream Shia and Sunni women wear the hijab differently. Some Sunni scholars emphasize covering of all body including the face in public whereas some scholars exclude the face from hijab. Shias believe that the hijab must cover around the perimeter of the face and up to the chin. Some Shia women, such as those in Iran and Iraq, use their hand to hold the black chador, in order to cover their faces when in public as Sunnis.

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Given names

Shia are often recognizable by their names which are often derived from the proper names or titles of saints. Shias who trace their ancestry back to the prophet, through his daughter Fatimah carry the title Sayyid.

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Theology

Sunni Theology: The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. These duties are Shahada (profession of faith), Salah (prayers), Zakat (giving of alms), Sawm (fasting, specifically during Ramadan) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). These five practices are essential to Sunni Muslims.

Shia Theology: Shia Theology has two concepts that define religion as a whole. There are Roots of Religion (Usūl al-Dīn) and Branches of Religion (Furu al Din). The Five Pillars are also accepted as essential rituals and practiced by Shias.

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History

Abbasid era: The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 CE by a new dynasty, the Abbasids. The first Abbasid caliph, As-Saffah, recruited Shia support in his campaign against the Umayyads by emphasizing his blood relationship to Muhammad’s household through descent from his uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib. The Shia also believe that he promised them that the Caliphate, or at least religious authority, would be vested in the Shia Imam. As-Saffah assumed both the temporal and religious mantle of Caliph himself. He continued the Umayyad dynastic practice of succession, and his brother al-Mansur succeeded him in 754.

The sixth Shia Imam died during al-Mansur’s reign, and there were claims that he was murdered on the orders of the caliph.(However, Abbasid persecution of Islamic lawyers was not restricted to the Shia. Abu Hanifah, for example was imprisoned by al-Mansur and tortured.)

Shia sources further claim that by the orders of the tenth Abassid caliph, al-Mutawakkil, the tomb of the third Imam, Husayn ibn Ali in Karbala, was completely demolished and Shias were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive, or even placed alive within the walls of government buildings still under construction.

The Shia believe that their community continued to live for the most part in hiding and followed their religious life secretly without external manifestations.

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Shia-Sunni in Iraq

Many Shia Iranians migrated to what is now Iraq in the 16th century. “It is said that when modern Iraq was formed, 75% of the population of Karbala was Iranian”. In time, these immigrants adopted the Arabic language and Arab identity, but their origin has been used to “unfairly cast them as lackeys of Iran. Other Iraqi Shias are ethnic Arabs with roots in Iraq as deep as those of their Sunni counterparts.